An intercomparison of particulate samplers used on the Hanford Site. KATHERINE BEEM (Susquehanna University Selinsgrove, PA 17870) BRAD FRITZ (Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, 99352)

The National Ambient Air Quality Standards set by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) include airborne particulate matter as a criteria pollutant. Correctly measuring the concentration of particulate in ambient air is important for regulatory compliance in addition to health concerns related to particulate matter. Particulate measurements are made with a variety of instruments because of cost, availability, or the type of measurement that is being made. Measurements made with different types of instruments can vary considerably making it important to know how well results from different instruments relate to one another. Measurements at the Hanford Site in Richland, Washington, were used to compare of several different instruments. The instruments used to take measurements include TEOM series 1400a, E-BAM, MiniVols, a 2-inch open-faced medium volume sampler, and a 4-inch open-faced high volume sampler. The TEOM and E-BAM show a very strong linear correlation while the MiniVol demonstrated no correlation with the other instruments that were used. The 2-inch open-faced and 4-inch open-faced TSP samplers had comparable measurements. Measurements of TSP with the 2-inch open-faced sampler correlated very well to TEOM PM₁₀ measurements indicating TSP at Hanford is composed mostly of PM₁₀.

Analysis of HYSPLIT Computed Particle Trajectories Using Data Acquired by. LESLIE BARAN (Northern Illinois University DeKalb, IL 60115) CARL BERKOWITZ (Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, 99352)

In July 2005, scientists from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Texas A&M University and the University of Massachusetts, Amherst conducted the Southeast Texas Transport Study of the pollution plume originating at the Houston Ship Channel in Houston, TX. The study had many goals, one of which was assessing how accurately models depicted the plume as it traveled across eastern Texas. Using specially designed controlled altitude balloons to tag the plume and a Twin Otter research aircraft loaded with equipment used to measure the pollutants, the composition and transport of the plume could be monitored. The balloon recorded wind speed, wind direction, GPS location, temperature and other meteorological data. Using the GPS location recorded by the balloon, trajectories were made of the path of the balloon. These "real" trajectories were compared to Hybrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory (HYSPLIT) computed trajectories generated before each flight. Models for the HYSPLIT trajectories used in making the trajectories were the Final (FNL) Global Data Assimilation System (GDAS) and the Eta Data Assimilation System (EDAS 40km). It was discovered that despite its lower spatial resolution (191 km as opposed to 40 km), the HYSPLIT trajectories produced by the FNL forecasted the path of the balloons more accurately than EDAS.

Analysis of Radionuclide Adsorption onto Bauxsol^™ "Red Mud" in Simulated Hanford Ground Water. CAITLIN LABRIE (Gonzaga University Spokane, WA 99258) JEFF SERNE (Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, 99352)

The efficacy of uranium-238 and other radionuclide removal by two types of Bauxsol^™ (red mud) material in simulated Hanford groundwater at differing pH was studied in order to ascertain its effectiveness as a remediation method for radionuclide contaminated groundwater. Batch adsorption experiments using simulated groundwater were performed with A2 SC Bauxsol^™ (red mud neutralized with sea water) and Activated SC Bauxsol™ which had been further treated with ferric sulfate (Fe₂(SO₄)₃) x 7H₂ 0). Five different concentrations of uranium-238, technetium-99, iodine-129, and chromium (VI) were spiked into groundwater and then contacted with each Bauxsol type for 24 hrs. The 5 uranium trials were also run at pHs ranging from 6.6 to 9.6. Results showed no uptake for Tc (as pertechnetate [TcO₄^-], I as iodide [I^-], or Cr as chromate [CrO₄^2-]. Uptake of uranium onto Activated Bauxsol™ decreased as pH increased, and for A2 SC Bauxsol the uptake formed a "U" shaped distribution with the least uptake at ~ pH 8.3. A leachability test found that uranium attachment to Activated Bauxsol™ involves strong surface complexation and that the solid must be treated with strong acid in order to remove the uranium; while the majority of uranium bound to A2 SC Bauxsol^™ can be simply desorbed by a carbonate-rich or groundwater solution. Thus uranium binding to A2 SC Bauxsol is mostly surface adsorption. These results were expected since the contaminants exist as anions and Bauxsol (made of Fe and Al hydrous oxides) sequesters cationic species more strongly at neutral to slightly basic pH values. Without further manipulations such as acidifying the groundwater/adsorbent slurry or using reducing agents such as calcium polysulfide, Bauxsol is not a useful option for remediation of the key problematic radionuclides in Hanford groundwaters.

Comparing Non-Stratified vs. Temperature-Stratified Classifications for Mapping Groundcover of Bromus tectorum (cheatgrass) in Southern Idaho using MODIS Satellite Imagery. MARY METZCAR (Ball State University Muncie, IN 47304) JANELLE DOWNS (Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, 99352)

Bromus tectorum (cheatgrass) is an annual grass from Eurasia that has invaded semi-arid and arid shrublands in the Intermountain West. Land managers need information to aid in mitigating the spread of B. tectorum and planning for land use, restoration and fuels management. Remote sensing imagery can provide information describing the location and density of cheatgrass stands over large land areas. The first objective of this study was to develop maps indicating low, medium, and high cheatgrass cover on Bureau of Land Management Lands in southern Idaho using training data for areas of varying levels of cheatgrass cover and Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) imagery. A second objective was to evaluate whether ancillary cumulative temperature information can be incorporated to improve the identification and classification of cheatgrass. The classification process used a multi-temporal image cube constructed using Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) values from MODIS imagery (compiled over 16-day periods) for a portion of southern Idaho for eleven different time periods. Maps predicting cheatgrass groundcover (low, medium and high cover) and cheatgrass presence/absence were generated in ERDAS IMAGINE® using the maximum likelihood classifier, Mahalanobis distance classifier, and minimum distance classifier with two different sets of signatures and training data. Resulting cheatgrass classifications were assessed with 46 known ground points to determine the overall classification accuracy for each method with and without stratification by temperature. Comparisons indicate using temperature stratification improves overall map accuracy for predicting cheatgrass cover or presence. For the maximum likelihood classifier, stratification increased accuracy from 34.8% to 52.2% for the cover class map and from 54.3% to 65.2% for the presence/absence map. Results indicate temperature-stratified classification methods and MODIS imagery can provide better presence/absence maps of B. tectorum than non-stratified classification methods.

Developing Analytical Techniques Used to Determine Potential Metabolites of the Atrazine in Complex Biological Matrices. EMIKA ALLEN (Concordia University Portland, OR 97211) JIM CAMPBELL (Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, 99352)

Atrazine (ATR), 2-chloro-4-(ethylamino)-6-(isopropylamino) - 1, 3, 5-triazine, is the most commonly used s-triazine herbicide in the United States and Europe. However, concern is rising regarding detecting exposure in humans using noninvasive bio-monitoring techniques (i.e. saliva samples). In order to detect and quantify ATR and its metabolites, knowing how ATR metabolizes is essential. There are several publications on how ATR metabolizes; however, there is question concerning the identification of the metabolites. For this reason, developing an analytical technique to confirm published information about the major metabolites of ATR is necessary. Before analyzing ATR, S-9 fractions consisting of rat liver microsomes were tested to determine if the enzymes were still active. Chlorpyrifos (CPF) was added to the S-9 fractions, and to simulate metabolism, they were incubated for 1 hour at 37 C. After extracting the analyte with ethyl acetate and derivatizing with N-(t-butyldimethylsilyl)-trifluoroacetamide (MTBSTFA), the samples were analyzed in order to detect the major metabolite of CPF which is 3, 5, 6-trichloro-2-pyridinol (TCP), using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Mass spectra from the derivatized CPF samples were compared with those from TCP standard samples, and the results showed that the enzymes were still active. ATR was then added to the S-9 fractions for detection of potential metabolites. The S-9 fractions were incubated for 1 hour at 37 C, extracted with ethyl acetate, and analyzed using GC/MS. Preliminary results, as indicated by a comparison of the mass spectra from the metabolized and non-metabolized ATR samples, show little or no metabolism at incubation for 1 hour for extractable materials. This means the samples either need to be derivatized to make ATR metabolites less polar and more volatile or that they never metabolized and need to be incubated for longer than 1 hour.

Interspecies Metabolism of Halogenated Acetic Acids. QASIM REHMAN (Michigan State University East Lansing, MI 48825) IRVIN SCHULTZ (Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, 99352)

Disinfected drinking water typically contains a mixture of di- and tri-halogenated acetic acids (HAA's), which are known hepatocarcinogens. It has been well documented that tri-HAA's undergo substantial microsomal metabolism, forming di-HAA's as the primary metabolite. In vitro metabolism of these acetic acids were studied-particularly tri-bromo acetic acid (TBA), chloro-dibromo acetic acid (CDBA), and tri-chloro acetic acid (TCA)-in rat, mouse, and human liver microsomes. Rat control microsomes and di-chloro acetic acid (DCA)-pretreated rat microsomes were compared in respect to their tri-HAA metabolism. DCA-pretreatment in rats both induces and increases the amount of the cytochrome P450-2E1 isoenzyme (CYP-2E1), which we had speculated was the main site of metabolism of these tri-HAA's. This comparison pointed to a notable increase in the amount of consumption of TBA and CDBA and an increase in production of their respective metabolites-di-bromo acetic acid (DBA) and bromo-chloro acetic acid (BCA)-in DCA-pretreated rat liver microsomes when compared with the controls. A comparative study of the metabolism of TBA and CDBA was also done in the microsomes of control mice and in CYP-2E1 gene knockout mice, which lacked this isoenzyme. These studies indicated a small decrease in consumption of TBA and CDBA and a slight decrease in the production of their respective metabolites in those mice without CYP-2E1 when compared with the controls. In human liver microsomes, CYP-2E1 monoclonal antibodies were used in an immunoinhibition study. Compared with the controls, the CYP-2E1-immunoinhibited microsomes showed a notable decrease in metabolism of CDBA and a corresponding decrease in the production of BCA. These collective results indicate that CYP-2E1 does play an important role in the metabolism of these tri-HAA's and the consequent production of di-HAA's. However, results also suggest that CYP-2E1-at least in the realm of these three species-is not the sole enzyme involved in this metabolic pathway, and that significant differences appear to exist between mice and humans. Also, in agreement with past in vivo and in vitro studies, TCA was shown to be a poor substrate for rat microsomal enzymes.

Mammoth Extinction: A Discussion of the Popular Theories and Scientists' Next Steps. ALLISON LEDESMA (University of Washington Seattle, WA 98115) GEORGE V. LAST (Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, 99352)

There are several theories as to why the mammoth became extinct in North America during the late Pleistocene Epoch. This group of theories includes but is not limited to: Climate Change; First Contact; Human Overkill; Keystone Herbivore Extinction; and the Deadly Virus Theory. Popular opinion as to which theory is more correct has changed over the years. Several articles were reviewed from each camp of thought in order to acquire a well-rounded understanding of the issue, including articles by Paul S. Martin, the spokesperson for the Human Overkill Hypothesis movement, and Donald Grayson, who is campaigning towards a better understanding of the Climate Change Theory. This study dovetails with Pacific Northwest National Laboratory's interest in the late Pleistocene's catastrophic Ice-Age flooding of Lake Missoula and how the flooding has shaped the geology of the Northwestern United States and doomed many of its late Pleistocene fauna. This paper brings five of the major extinction theories together for the first time, weighing their positive and negative aspects against each other in order to consider more carefully which theory is most accurate; and as a caveat, reviews possible research paths which scientists may pursue in light of these theories.

Semi-quantification of Holocene-age Columbia River sediments from the Hanford Reach using X-ray diffraction (XRD) and comparison to modern Columbia River sediment. BARBARA BURKHOLDER (Texas Christian University Fort Worth, TX 76129) H. TODD SCHAEF (Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, 99352)

The discovery of an extensive network of Holocene-age Columbia River fluvial terraces and bedforms within the Hanford Reach of south-central Washington has opened the question of whether sediments eroded and deposited by the Columbia River over the past 10,000 years have significantly changed. Fifty-eight Holocene-age Columbia River sediment samples were collected from major fluvial terraces and point bars within the Hanford Reach, the last "free-flowing" segment of the Columbia River. Bulk and clay fractions of these samples were analyzed for mineralogical components and their corresponding relative abundances using X-ray diffraction (XRD). The bulk of the Holocene-age sediments is primarily composed of quartz and sodium-rich plagioclase feldspar, composing approximately 28 wt-% and 22-wt%, respectively. Smectite and illite dominate the clay fraction, with abundances averaging around 42 wt-% and 38 wt-%, respectively. The presence of sodium-rich plagioclase and illite suggests the sediments may have originated in a plutonic or metamorphic environment, such as the Northern Cascades. Overall, the Holocene-age sediments were comparable to sediments presently being deposited by the Columbia River, suggesting the fluvial processes influencing the Columbia River today are similar to processes that influenced it over the past 10,000 years.

Stabilization of Arsenic-Bearing Residuals in Polymeric Matrices. JACQUELINE SHAW (University of Arizona Tucson, AZ 85721) WENDELL ELA (Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, 99352)

The USEPA's new standard for arsenic in drinking water (10 µg/L) has motivated research to safely and effectively dispose of arsenic-bearing solid residuals (ABSR) produced in water purification. This research investigates the use of polymeric matrices to encapsulate three different sorbents commonly used in the water industry to remove arsenic. Arsenic containing granular ferric oxy/hydroxide and ferric hydroxide amended alumina residuals were encapsulated in rubber-epoxy composite matrices using an aqueous-based, environmentally benign, manufacturing flowsheet. Arsenic leaching of encapsulated and unencapsulated residuals was evaluated using the standard Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) and the more aggressive California Waste Extraction Test (CA-WET). The structure and composition of the resulting polymeric waste forms were analyzed using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). Arsenic, iron and aluminum concentrations were evaluated using Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES). The results showed that waste forms of the polymer encapsulated ABSR crushed for testing retain good leaching resistance, with arsenic levels typically 10 times lower than the unencapsulated ABSR and below the federal Toxicity Characteristics (TC) standard of 5 mg/L. When compared with conventional cement matrices containing the same ABSR, the polymeric matrices encapsulated 4 times more waste (loading levels in excess of 60 wt%) and leached arsenic at levels 1-2 orders of magnitude lower than cement.

Strontium and Calcite: A remediation approach for cleanup at the Hanford Site. AYESHA PERGADIA (Purdue University West Lafayette, IN 47906) DAVID BLANCHARD (Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, 99352)

Surface analysis techniques have been used in the past as a way to investigate methods to expedite the remediation of Sr-90 contamination at the Hanford site. In order to develop these techniques for remediation, investigations need to be done to analyze the binding properties of different compounds that could potentially be used for this cleanup. In this investigation specifically, the binding properties of strontium to calcite were examined using the surface analysis techniques of XPS, AES, and SIMS. XPS or X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy is a surface analysis technique that identifies certain elements by irradiating a sample using monoenergetic soft x-rays and sorting them by their distinctive energies. SIMS or Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry is a process that can utilize a mass filtered beam of argon, oxygen, or cesium to strike a surface and remove the outermost surface atoms. In our investigation we used argon to conduct this process. The emitted atoms were then detected by a mass spectrometer and then classified. Our third surface analysis technique was AES, or Auger Electron Spectroscopy. This technique engaged the chemistry of our sample's surface by measuring the kinetic energy of the ejected Auger electrons. The energies detected were then used to identify the composition of our surface. The specific strontium compound that we used was SrF2. This was carefully measured out and placed on the surface of calcite prior to investigation. The percent concentration of the elements found on our sample's surface was determined using a data analysis software called CasaXPS. Our results showed us that there is a very slight affinity of SrF2 to calcite. This affinity exits in a very small percent concentration, and only at the surface. The last few trials using the SIMS provided us with no evidence of Strontium, showing us that the element was sputtered off as we tried to examine the deeper layers of our sample. This experiment is a subset of a larger study that is being done to eventually study the effects of different Strontium compounds such as, Sr(OH)2, SrSO4, and Sr(NO3)2 to different surfaces such as MgO, CaO, and TiO2.

Synthesis of pALS Plasmids Containing Fluorescent Protein Genes for Insertion into Shewanella oneidensis for Analysis with Confocal Microscopy. ALLISON SPENCER (Whitman College Walla Walla, WA 99362) DAVID E. CULLEY (Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, 99352)

Bioremediation is an essential component of stabilizing and decontaminating radioactive materials present on DOE sites. Shewanella oneidensis' ability to reduce different metals for respiration make it a prime candidate for environmental cleanup. Analysis of S. oneidensis using confocal microscopy is essential for a complete investigation of how the bacterium exercises control over its ability to use different metals as electron acceptors. As confocal microscopy requires fluorescence for visualization, genes coding for fluorescent proteins will need to be inserted into the chromosomal DNA of S. oneidensis. Cloning of four different fluorescent gene sequences located in AKN plasmids was done using PCR with a Phusion polymerase. Cloned sequences were ligated into pKD4 vectors to create the pALS plasmids. Plasmids were electroporated into competent E. coli cells to be screened for gene incorporation. Using Epi-Fluorescent microscopy and ultraviolet light, all four newly created pALS plasmids were screened for fluorescence. Analysis showed each fluorescent protein gene sequence had been successfully inserted into the pKD4 vector. All pALS plasmids contain Gentamicin resistance as well as either a green, yellow, cyan or red fluorescent protein gene flanked by two Tn7 transposon sites. From here, the next step is to incorporate the Tn7 region from the pALS plasmids into the attTn7 site on Shewanella's chromosome. This is done with a helper plasmid that encodes for the transposition pathway.

Synthesis of Zirconium Oxo Phosphate for Application in Uranium(VI) Removal. LYNDSAY TROYER (Whitman College Walla Walla, WA 99362) WOOYONG UM (Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, 99352)

This study attempts the synthesis of uniformly porous zirconium oxo phosphate and investigates its use as a sorbent for U(VI) removal from solution phase in varying background conditions including pH, ionic strength, and carbonate concentration. The zirconium oxo phosphate was synthesized successfully and was characterized by TEM, IR spectroscopy, XRD, and nitrogen adsorption. By these methods, the material was found to be a highly ordered nanoporous material with hexagonal pore structure. Several sets of batch adsorption experiments, both open and closed to the atmosphere, at a pH range from 3-10, and at ionic strengths of 0.1 M and 0.5 M NaNO3, were allowed to react to equilibrium for 48 hours to determine the percent U(VI) adsorption. The compared results showed a lower U(VI) uptake at low pH (3-4) and high pH (8-10), and also at high ionic strength (0.5 M NaNO3), and in open systems. This result was expected because of the known affect of these background conditions on the interaction between dissolved uranyl ions and the charged sorbent surface. From a linear isotherm, the Kd for a closed system with 0.1 M NaNO3 and a pH of 8.05 ± 0.23 was calculated to be 38,147 mL/g. This value, in comparison to that of other synthesized materials, indicates the high efficiency of the zirconium oxo phosphate as a sorbent for U(VI) removal.

Textural Analysis of High-Resolution Imagery for Classifying Shrub Canopy Cover on the Hanford Site. SAMUEL BADER (Southern Nazarene University Bethany, OK 73008) JERRY TAGESTAD (Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, 99352)

Sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) ecosystems once dominated much of the western part of North America, but millions of hectares have been degraded, fragmented, or lost due to human activity. The loss of sagebrush habitat has large impacts for populations of many sagebrush obligate wildlife species. Land managers need methods to quantify and monitor the shrub canopy cover for the sagebrush ecosystems that remain. Current methods of relating semi-arid shrub canopy cover and/or density to spectral variables derived from remote sensing imagery have varied in success. Textural analysis has advantages over traditional spectral-based classification because it produces a consistent histogram from which a threshold can be chosen relating to shrub objects in imagery. It also aids in equalizing variations in background brightness making shrub objects more distinguishable. Models were developed to map shrub canopy cover on the U.S. Department of Energy's Hanford site, located north of Richland, WA using percent canopy cover measured on 100 m2 plots located throughout the Site and image analysis of aerial photography. Common shrub species on the site include big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata), gray rabbitbrush (Ericameria nauseosa), green rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus), bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata), and spiny hopsage (Grayia spinosa). Canopy cover was mapped by applying a texture model to high-resolution aerial photos (.29 m) taken May 1, 2002. Results of the texture model were degraded to 5 m to provide a more realistic scale for percent shrub canopy cover assessment. Accuracy assessment of 48 plots yielded an R2 = .70. Despite difficulties encountered because of poor geo-referencing on sections of the imagery as well as a field data collection methodology designed for a different type of study, textural analysis appears to be successful for accurately classifying shrub canopy cover. Better geo-referenced imagery and field data collection designed for this type of study would likely give a better and more realistic display of the efficacy of textural analysis to classify shrub canopy cover from remotely sensed imagery.

Use of Artificial Burrows by Burrowing Owls (Athene cunicularia) at the HAMMER Facility on the U.S. Department of Energy Hanford Site in the Summer of 2005. AMANDA ALEXANDER (Genesee Community College Batavia, NY 14036) MICHAEL SACKSCHEWSKY (Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, 99352)

In 2003 the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) constructed an Emergency Vehicle Operations Course (EVOC) at the Hazardous Material Management and Emergency Response Training and Education Center (HAMMER) in the southern portion of the Hanford Site. Preliminary surveys during 2001 identified an active burrowing owl (Athene cunicularia) burrow and three burrowing owls within the proposed development area. Burrowing owls were classified as a federal species of concern, a Washington State "candidate" species, a WDFW priority species, and a Hanford Site Biological Resources Management Plan Level III resource. Therefore a mitigation action plan was established that included the installation of twenty artificial burrowing owl burrows around EVOC in the spring of 2003. The mitigation plan stated that a five percent annual use in the artificial burrows by burrowing owls was to be considered a success. In July 2005 a field survey of the EVOC artificial burrow complex was conducted to determine use and demography at each burrow site. Burrow locations were mapped and signs of activity (feces, owl tracks, castings, feathers) were recorded. Out of the twenty burrows, twelve were found to be active. Of the eight inactive burrows three appeared to have been previously active during the 2005 breeding season. A total of nineteen owls were counted but demography could not be determined. It appears that the EVOC mitigation exceeded burrow use goals during 2005. Continued site monitoring and maintenance, according to mitigation plan guidelines should be conducted as prescribed.